By BeSund Editorial Team     11/07/2023     Modified Date: 17/03/2025

The Importance of Nutrition for Health and Performance in Health and Fitness

Nutrition for health and performance forms the foundation of optimal well-being and successful physical activity. Our understanding of human physiology shows that what we eat directly influences our body’s function. Proper nutrition provides essential building blocks for recovery, growth, and disease prevention.

Research shows that six of the top thirteen causes of death globally are directly linked to poor nutrition and inactivity, including heart disease, cancer, stroke, type 2 diabetes, chronic liver disease, and high blood pressure. The macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, and fats) we consume provide varying amounts of energy per gram (4, 4, and 9 calories, respectively) and serve distinct functions in maintaining bodily processes. See the table below for a detailed breakdown of macronutrient functions and their impact on health.

Across the coming sections, we’ll explore the fundamentals of nutrition science, examine how food fuels physical activity, separate helpful supplements from marketing hype, and dispel common myths. We’ll also provide practical strategies for implementing evidence-based nutrition approaches into your daily life, regardless of your fitness level or specific goals.

Why Good Nutrition Is Essential for Your Health and Fitness

Good nutrition is the foundation for maintaining optimal health and achieving fitness goals. Nutrition for health and performance goes beyond counting calories—it represents a relationship between dietary intake and physiological function that influences everything from immune response to cognitive abilities.

Our bodies require a precise balance of nutrients to perform essential processes like cell repair, hormone production, immune function, and energy generation. When we consume a varied and balanced diet, we provide our systems with the tools needed to maintain homeostasis (internal balance) and function optimally.

Nutritional intake strongly influences the development of chronic diseases such as coronary heart disease, hypertension, osteoporosis, various cancers, and obesity. These conditions reduce quality of life and often lead to other disabilities. For instance, type 2 diabetes ranks among the leading causes of blindness and amputation worldwide.

Physical activity increases nutrient demands, creating a greater need for proper fuelling strategies. Research shows that adequate nutrient supply is essential to support physical activity, facilitate adaptation to training, and enable recovery. Nutrition for health and performance becomes particularly important when exercising regularly.

Research shows that food affects mental health and cognitive performance by impacting multiple molecular systems (cellular signalling networks) that support neuronal function and plasticity (the brain’s ability to form new connections). These effects influence mood regulation, concentration, and overall brain health.

How Food Affects Energy, Recovery, and Long-Term Health

The food we consume functions similarly to fuel in a vehicle—providing the necessary energy for optimal operation. Nutrition for health and performance directly influences our ability to generate energy, recover from exertion, and maintain wellness across our lifespan.

Energy production is one of food’s primary functions. After consumption, macronutrients (large nutrient compounds) are broken down into glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids. Cells then use these to form energy, which is primarily stored as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This process enables everything from essential cellular functions to physical activity.

Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred dietary source for creating ATP through a series of metabolic reactions (chemical processes), primarily in the mitochondria (cell powerhouses). The brain consumes approximately 20% of glucose-derived energy at rest despite being unable to store energy itself, making proper nutrition essential for cognitive and physical performance.

Recovery after physical activity depends heavily on appropriate nutrition for health and performance. Post-exercise protein consumption replaces exercise-induced amino acid losses and provides building blocks for new body proteins. Research shows that carbohydrate and protein intake improves muscle balance after exercise.

Long-term health outcomes are tied to nutritional choices over time. Diets rich in essential nutrients like omega-3 fatty acids can enhance brain function. In contrast, diets high in processed foods contribute to inflammation. Research indicates that high-fibre diets benefit heart health across various populations. This approach to nutrition for health and performance recognises how different food components collectively impact health.

The Basics of Nutrition

The fundamentals of nutrition for health and performance establish how different nutrients function as essential building blocks for our bodies. These nutrients provide energy, support physiological functions, and aid recovery from daily activities. The right balance of macronutrients, micronutrients, dietary fibre, and adequate hydration creates optimal conditions for health.

Each nutrient fulfils specific roles in maintaining bodily functions. From providing fuel for physical activity to supporting immune function and tissue repair, proper nutrition significantly influences daily energy levels and capabilities. Food choices impact both immediate energy availability and long-term health outcomes.

Various factors affect nutritional requirements, including age, activity level, and health status. Learning about each nutrient category helps make informed dietary decisions for better health.

What Are Macronutrients? Understanding Proteins, Carbs, and Fats in Nutrition for Health and Performance

Macronutrients, which form the primary components of our diet, include proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Each provides energy and serves distinct nutrition, health, and performance functions. The nutrients shown in the table above differ in energy provision: carbohydrates and proteins supply 4 calories per gram. In comparison, fats provide 9 calories per gram.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred energy source, particularly for high-intensity activities. They fuel brain function and central nervous system operations. As simple sugars or complex starches, carbohydrates break down into glucose for immediate energy or are stored as glycogen in muscles and the liver for later use. Complex carbohydrates from whole grains and vegetables offer additional benefits through vitamins, minerals, and fibre content.

Proteins

Proteins consist of amino acids, often called the body’s building blocks. They support muscle growth, tissue repair, and enzyme and hormone production. While proteins can provide energy, their primary role involves structural and functional support rather than fuel. The International Society of Sports Nutrition recommends a daily protein intake of 1.4-2.0g/kg body weight to maintain muscle mass and support recovery.

Fats

Fats perform vital roles beyond energy storage. They support:

• Cell membrane integrity
• Hormone production
• Absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K).

Different types include saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fats. While the body requires some fat intake, balance remains essential, with research suggesting 20-30% of total energy should come from fat sources.

The optimal macronutrient ratio varies based on individual needs and goals. General guidelines suggest 50-65% of calories from carbohydrates, 13-20% from proteins, and 20-30% from fats. However, these proportions may shift based on activity level and health considerations.

The Role of Vitamins and Minerals in Nutrition for Health and Performance

Though needed in smaller quantities than macronutrients, vitamins and minerals play crucial roles in nutrition for health and performance. These micronutrients support numerous bodily functions, including energy production, immune response, and cellular repair.

Vitamins

Vitamins fall into two categories:

1. Fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K): Fat-soluble vitamins stored in body tissues
2. Water-soluble (B-complex and C): Water-soluble vitamins require regular consumption as they are excreted through urine when in excess.

B-complex vitamins and vitamin C participate actively in energy metabolism, converting food into usable energy. Vitamins B6, B12, C, and folate also support protein metabolism, essential for muscle repair and growth. Additionally, vitamins A, C, and E function as antioxidants, protecting cells from damage caused by exercise-induced oxidative stress.

Minerals

Minerals include calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, and selenium. Calcium and magnesium support bone health and muscle function, while iron transports oxygen to working muscles. Zinc aids in immune function and protein synthesis, and selenium provides antioxidant protection.

Research links micronutrient deficiencies to reduced physical performance and increased risk of health issues. Even marginal deficiencies can impair enzymatic activity and energy production, resulting in fatigue and decreased exercise capacity.

Those engaging in regular physical activity typically have higher micronutrient requirements than sedentary individuals. Dietary variety usually provides sufficient micronutrients, though specific populations may benefit from targeted supplementation under professional guidance.

Why Fibre and Gut Health Matter for Digestion and Overall Wellness

Though often overlooked in nutrition for health and performance, dietary fibre provides benefits extending well beyond digestion. This non-digestible carbohydrate travels relatively intact through the digestive system, promoting gut health and overall wellness.

Fibre comes in two primary forms:

1. Soluble: Soluble fibre dissolves in water, forming a gel-like substance that slows digestion and helps regulate blood glucose levels.
2. Insoluble: Insoluble fibre adds bulk to stool, supporting regular bowel movements and digestive health.

Both types contribute to a healthy gut microbiome—the collection of beneficial bacteria in the intestines.

The gut microbiome extends human metabolic capacity by facilitating the digestion of insoluble fibres, enhancing nutrient absorption, and even producing specific vitamins. Research shows that fibre-rich diets are associated with improved cardiometabolic risk factors and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes, colon cancer, and obesity.

For active individuals, fibre timing deserves consideration. Consuming high-fibre meals immediately before exercise may cause gastrointestinal discomfort. However, regular fibre intake supports consistent energy levels and overall digestive health, benefiting performance and recovery.

Prebiotics—specific types of fibre that feed beneficial gut bacteria—and probiotics—live beneficial bacteria—work together to maintain gut health. These components support immune function, reduce inflammation, and improve nutrient absorption, improving performance and recovery.

World Health Organisation guidelines recommend at least 25g of fibre daily, though many individuals fall short of this target. Increasing fibre intake gradually through fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes helps avoid digestive discomfort while maximising health benefits.

Hydration and Why Drinking Enough Water Is Key

Water is the most essential nutrient for survival, playing an integral role in virtually every bodily function. Proper hydration forms a cornerstone of nutrition for health and performance. Yet, its importance often receives less attention than macronutrients or vitamins.

The human body comprises approximately 60% water distributed across various fluid compartments. Extracellular fluid accounts for about 20% of body mass (plasma ~5%, interstitial fluid ~15%), and intracellular fluid comprises ~40%. This distribution directly affects nutrient transport, temperature regulation, and waste removal.

Dehydration—even at modest levels—significantly impairs physical and cognitive function. Research shows that just 2% body weight loss through fluid reduction decreases exercise capacity, impairs thermoregulation, and reduces cognitive performance. These effects become particularly pronounced during intensive exercise or in hot environments.

Individual hydration needs vary based on body size, activity level, climate, and dietary patterns. While general guidelines suggest 2.7 litres (11 cups) daily for women and 3.7 litres (16 cups) for men, personalised approaches offer better results. Monitoring urine colour—pale yellow indicating good hydration—provides a simple self-assessment method.

Exercise increases fluid requirements through sweat loss, which contains electrolytes like sodium and potassium. Water typically suffices for rehydration for shorter workouts (under an hour). Longer or more intense sessions may benefit from fluids containing electrolytes and carbohydrates to support performance and recovery.

Beyond physical performance, proper hydration supports cognitive function, mood regulation, and various metabolic processes. Research demonstrates that adequate water consumption can improve mood, cognitive performance, and visual attention.

Nutrition for Exercise and Daily Movement

Physical activity creates unique demands on the body that require specific nutritional approaches to support energy production, performance, and recovery. The strategic timing and composition of meals can significantly influence how well your body responds to exercise and daily activities.

Decades of research have advanced our understanding of nutrition for health and performance, revealing how different nutrients fuel various types of movement. From household tasks to structured workouts, the body relies on carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in varying proportions depending on activity intensity and duration.

The following sections provide insights into how your body converts food into usable energy, optimal pre-workout nutrition strategies, effective post-exercise recovery approaches, and the distinct nutritional requirements for different types of physical activities.

How Your Body Uses Food for Energy in Nutrition for Health and Performance

The human body operates like a sophisticated energy conversion system, transforming food into movement through several metabolic pathways. Each macronutrient plays a distinct role in fuelling physical activity.

Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred energy source, particularly for high-intensity exercise. When consumed, carbohydrates break down into glucose, which circulates in the bloodstream or converts to glycogen stored in muscles and the liver. The brain and nervous system rely almost exclusively on glucose, consuming approximately 20% of glucose-derived energy at rest.

During exercise, the body prioritises different energy systems based on intensity and duration:

• Short, explosive efforts (under 10 seconds): ATP-PCr system provides immediate energy
• High-intensity activities (10 seconds – 2 minutes): Anaerobic glycolysis becomes predominant
• Longer duration activities: Aerobic metabolism increasingly contributes, with fat oxidation rising as intensity decreases

Fats provide a concentrated energy form, yielding more than twice the energy per gram compared to carbohydrates (9 vs 4 calories). Fat oxidation increases and becomes a significant fuel source during low to moderate-intensity exercise. The body’s fat stores are unlimited compared to glycogen, making fat crucial for extended activities.

Some athletes strategically implement high-fat diets to enhance fat oxidation capacity for ultra-endurance events lasting over four hours. Combined with carbohydrate loading before competition, this approach may improve performance by reducing reliance on limited glycogen stores.

Proteins primarily support tissue growth and repair rather than serving as a primary energy source. However, during prolonged exercise or when carbohydrate availability is low, amino acids can convert to glucose through gluconeogenesis, helping maintain blood glucose levels at the cost of reduced protein availability for muscle maintenance.

The energy system contribution varies by activity type. For example:

• A 90-minute football match derives approximately 90% of energy from aerobic metabolism and 10% from anaerobic pathways
• Sprint efforts rely predominantly on stored ATP and phosphocreatine
• Marathon running progressively increases fat utilisation as glycogen stores deplete

What to Eat Before a Workout for Best Performance

What you consume before exercise can significantly impact your performance, comfort, and results. Strategic pre-workout nutrition establishes optimal conditions for physical activity while minimising digestive discomfort.

Carbohydrate Timing and Amounts

For activities lasting longer than an hour, consuming carbohydrates beforehand increases muscle and liver glycogen concentrations, which delays fatigue. Research indicates that trained individuals can maximise glycogen storage through:

• 5-7g of carbohydrate per kg body mass daily during the week before the competition
• 7-12g per kg the day before an event
• A carbohydrate-focused meal 2-3 hours pre-exercise

Protein Considerations

Adding moderate protein before exercise helps preserve muscle tissue and provides additional energy when needed. A modest protein intake split into 20–30g meal servings meets needs without displacing carbohydrates. This approach also helps maintain blood glucose levels by preventing reactive hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar).

Timing Strategies Based on Workout Type

Fat and Fibre Considerations

Fat intake should be minimised close to exercise as it delays gastric emptying (food movement from stomach to intestines). Combined with pre-exercise stress, this effect can cause digestive discomfort during activity. Similarly, high-fibre foods are best avoided immediately before exercise to prevent gastrointestinal distress.

Performance-Enhancing Compounds

Certain nutritional compounds may enhance pre-workout effectiveness:

• Beta-alanine increases muscle carnosine levels, improving the body’s ability to buffer acid during high-intensity exercise
• Caffeine consumed 45-60 minutes before activity can improve performance by enhancing fat utilisation and central nervous system function.

The pre-workout nutrition approach that optimises nutrition for health and performance must balance scientific principles with individual needs and preferences. Experimentation during training (rather than competition) helps identify your best strategy.

How to Fuel Your Body After Exercise for Better Recovery With Nutrition for Health and Performance

The period following exercise presents a unique opportunity to enhance recovery through strategic nutrition for health and performance. What you eat after activity directly influences how quickly and effectively your body repairs, rebuilds, and prepares for future exertion.

Carbohydrate Replenishment

Exercise depletes muscle glycogen stores, particularly during moderate to high-intensity activities. After exercise, consuming carbohydrates accelerates glycogen synthesis and improves recovery. For rapid replenishment, consider:

• Consuming 1.2g of carbohydrate per kg body weight per hour during the first 4-6 hours post-exercise
• Choosing moderate to high glycemic index carbohydrates immediately after exercise
• Increasing carbohydrate intake when training multiple times within 24 hours

Protein for Repair and Growth

Exercise creates microscopic damage to muscle fibres that require protein for repair. Research indicates:

• 20-40g of high-quality protein optimally stimulates muscle protein synthesis in most adults
• Whey protein, with its high leucine content and rapid absorption, effectively supports muscle repair
• Due to lower digestibility and amino acid profiles, plant-based proteins require slightly higher amounts to achieve similar anabolic effects.

The Power of Combination

Consuming carbohydrates and protein together enhances recovery benefits beyond either nutrient alone. Studies show that ingesting carbohydrates (0.7g/kg) with protein (0.3g/kg) accelerates recovery and improves subsequent performance. This synergistic effect occurs because:

1. Carbohydrates stimulate insulin release
2. Insulin facilitates amino acid uptake into muscle cells
3. The combination enhances glycogen synthesis beyond carbohydrates alone

Rehydration Strategies

Proper fluid replacement after exercise requires attention to both quantity and composition.

Including sodium (500-700mg/L) in rehydration beverages improves fluid retention and restores electrolyte balance, which is particularly important after heavy sweating.

Timing Considerations

While the traditional “anabolic window” concept (30 minutes to 2 hours post-exercise) remains relevant for athletes training multiple times daily, research now suggests more flexibility:

• For those training once daily, meeting total daily macronutrient targets may be more important than precise timing
• Consuming protein every 3-4 hours throughout the day optimises muscle protein synthesis
• Pre-sleep nutrition (particularly protein) may enhance overnight recovery

Anti-inflammatory Support

Exercise-induced inflammation is a normal adaptation process, but excessive inflammation can delay recovery. Certain nutrients may help modulate the inflammatory response:

• Omega-3 fatty acids may reduce muscle soreness and inflammation following intense exercise
• Antioxidant-rich foods support cellular recovery and immune function

The optimal post-exercise nutrition for health and performance strategy balances scientific evidence with practical considerations like appetite, food availability, and individual goals.

The Difference Between Nutrition for Endurance and Strength Training

Different types of physical activities create distinct metabolic demands, requiring tailored approaches to nutrition for health and performance. Knowing these physiological differences between endurance and strength training helps optimise nutritional strategies for specific goals.

Energy System Utilisation

Endurance and strength activities rely on fundamentally different energy systems:

• Endurance activities primarily use aerobic metabolism, which requires oxygen to produce energy efficiently over extended periods. As exercise duration increases beyond 4 minutes, aerobic energy contribution exceeds 70%
• Strength activities depend heavily on anaerobic energy systems—particularly the ATP-PCr (phosphagen) system for explosive efforts and glycolytic pathways for sustained high-intensity work.

Macronutrient Requirements

These metabolic differences directly influence optimal nutrition strategies:

Nutritional Timing Differences

When to consume nutrients also varies between training modalities:

• Endurance athletes often need fuelling strategies during activity, particularly for sessions lasting beyond 60-90 minutes
• Strength athletes typically focus on pre-and post-workout nutrition without requiring fuelling during sessions
• Recovery nutrition emphasis differs—glycogen replenishment for endurance versus protein synthesis for strength

Supplement Considerations

Certain supplements show varying effectiveness between training types:

• Creatine monohydrate significantly benefits strength and power performance but offers minimal advantages for pure endurance activities
• Caffeine can enhance both endurance and strength performance through different mechanisms
• Carbohydrate supplements during activity benefit endurance athletes more directly than strength athletes

Hydration Needs

Endurance activities typically create greater fluid and electrolyte losses through prolonged sweating than strength training. This difference necessitates more aggressive hydration strategies for endurance athletes, particularly in challenging environmental conditions.

The ideal nutritional approach acknowledges these fundamental differences while recognising that many recreational exercisers participate in both activities. Creating flexible nutrition for health and performance strategies that adapt to training demands supports optimal results regardless of activity choice.

Supplements – Helpful or Overrated?

The supplement industry has evolved into a multibillion-dollar global enterprise, offering products that claim to enhance nutrition for health and performance. These products range from basic vitamins and minerals to specialised ergogenic aids targeting athletic performance.

Knowing which supplements provide genuine benefits versus those that drain your wallet requires examining scientific evidence rather than marketing claims.

In today’s busy schedules and processed food consumption, supplements seem like an attractive solution to nutritional gaps. However, research indicates that whole foods should form the foundation of your diet. Nutrients from food sources typically offer better absorption and contain additional beneficial compounds that supplements cannot replicate.

The decision to use supplements depends on individual factors, including dietary patterns, activity level, age, and specific health conditions. In the following section, we’ll examine when supplements might offer value, which ones have scientific backing, and common misconceptions about popular products.

Do You Need Supplements, or Is Whole Food Enough for Nutrition for Health and Performance?

Most nutritional needs can be met through a balanced, varied diet rich in whole foods. Dietary advice emphasises that “nutrient needs should be met primarily through food consumption” as foods provide various compounds that may reduce disease risk in ways supplements cannot. Fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and unprocessed foods deliver nutrients alongside fibre and bioactive substances that work together to support health.

However, certain circumstances justify supplementation. Research shows that over 2 billion people worldwide suffer from micronutrient deficiencies, including iron, iodine, zinc, and vitamins A and B. Even in industrialised countries, suboptimal micronutrient intakes are surprisingly common—falling below recommended dietary allowances despite general food abundance.

Individuals following restrictive eating patterns may benefit from targeted supplements. For example, those on vegetarian or vegan diets might consider vitamin B12, as this nutrient occurs naturally, almost exclusively in animal products. Similarly, athletes with high caloric expenditure or those on weight-management diets might struggle to obtain adequate nutrients from food alone.

Age-related factors also influence supplement requirements. Older adults often experience decreased appetite (anorexia of ageing) and reduced nutrient absorption. Studies show that older people consume 16-20% fewer calories than younger adults, potentially leading to nutrient inadequacies. In such cases, supplements help maintain nutritional status and support health.

Several medical conditions warrant supplementation. Specific supplements may benefit individuals with absorption disorders, those recovering from illness or surgery, and pregnant women. For instance, omega-3 fatty acids have shown potential benefits for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients.

The quantity and quality of supplements matter significantly. Taking excessive amounts doesn’t provide additional benefits. It may even cause harm, particularly with fat-soluble vitamins accumulating in body tissues. When selecting supplements, look for third-party testers (like NSF Certified for Sport) to ensure product quality and safety, as dietary supplements aren’t regulated by food safety authorities in the same way as pharmaceuticals.

A good rule of thumb, even if you are sure, is to seek advice from healthcare professionals or experienced individuals before starting supplements. Registered Dietitians specialising in sports nutrition can provide personalised guidance based on individual needs, health status, and potential medication interactions. This personalised approach helps avoid unnecessary supplementation while addressing genuine nutritional gaps and wasting money.

Popular Fitness Supplements and What They Actually Do

The market offers numerous supplements claiming to enhance physical performance. Scientific validity varies across nutritional approaches, influencing their effectiveness for health and performance. Here’s what current research indicates about some popular options:

1: Creatine

Creatine monohydrate is one of the most extensively researched and effective supplements. This naturally occurring compound increases phosphocreatine reserves in muscles, allowing for rapid regeneration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP, the primary energy source for intense activity).

Research consistently demonstrates the benefits of short-duration, high-intensity exercise for improving lean body mass, strength, and power. Studies show that creatine supplementation can increase upper-body muscle strength by 4.43 kg and lower-body strength by 11.35 kg compared to training alone.

2: Caffeine

Caffeine is an adenosine receptor antagonist that delays fatigue and improves alertness. Research demonstrates its ability to enhance endurance, strength, and cognitive performance during exercise.

Doses of 3-6 mg/kg body weight have improved muscle power and endurance while reducing perceived exertion. For perspective, a standard cup of coffee contains approximately 80-100 mg of caffeine.

3: Beta-Alanine

Beta-alanine is a precursor to carnosine, which helps buffer muscle acid accumulation during intense exercise. By increasing muscle carnosine content, beta-alanine supplementation can enhance performance in activities lasting 1-4 minutes by delaying fatigue onset.

Studies show improvements in high-intensity interval performance and sport-specific fitness tests with regular supplementation of 3-6g daily.

4: Sodium Bicarbonate

Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) works externally to beta-alanine by buffering blood acidity during intense exercise. Research shows that combined creatine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation significantly improves sprint times and agility in athletes.

Typical doses range from 0.2-0.4g per kg of body weight, though gastrointestinal discomfort limits its practical use for some individuals.

5: Protein

Protein supplements, particularly whey protein, support muscle repair and growth. With high leucine content and rapid absorption, whey protein effectively stimulates muscle protein synthesis during training sessions. Research recommends 20-40g of high-quality protein post-exercise to optimise recovery and adaptation, with plant-based proteins requiring slightly higher amounts to achieve similar effects due to different amino acid profiles.

6: Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil and algal supplements offer benefits beyond performance. These essential fats support cardiovascular health, reduce inflammation, and may enhance recovery from training. For those who don’t regularly consume oily fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines), 1-2g daily of combined EPA and DHA may provide benefits.

7: Vitamin D

Vitamin D warrants attention since many people worldwide have insufficient levels due to limited sun exposure, clothing, and seasonal variation. Beyond bone health, vitamin D plays roles in muscle function, immune response, and possibly athletic performance. Those with limited sun exposure or low blood levels might benefit from supplementation.

Remember that timing, dosage, and individual factors significantly influence results when considering supplements. What works for one person may not work for another due to genetic differences, training status, diet quality, and specific goals.

The Truth About Protein Powders, Creatine, and Hydration Drinks

Protein Powders: Convenience vs. Necessity

Protein powders are among the most common nutrition, health, and performance supplements. These processed protein sources come in several forms, with whey protein being particularly popular. While whole-food protein sources should form the foundation of your diet, protein supplements offer convenience and precise dosing that can be beneficial in certain situations.

Whey protein digests rapidly, making it ideal for post-exercise consumption when the body needs amino acids quickly for repair. Research shows that 20-40g of high-quality protein optimally stimulates muscle protein synthesis in most adults. However, the notion that protein supplements provide better absorption than food protein lacks scientific support—they’re simply more convenient.

The timing of protein intake matters less than previously thought. The traditional “anabolic window” concept (30 minutes to 2 hours post-exercise) remains relevant for athletes training multiple times daily, but research now suggests greater flexibility. Meeting total daily protein requirements (1.2-2.0 g/kg body weight for physically active individuals) appears more important than precise timing for most people.

Plant-based protein powders (pea, rice, soy) provide alternatives for avoiding animal products. These typically contain less leucine (a key amino acid for muscle building) than whey, so slightly higher doses may be needed to achieve similar anabolic effects. Combining different plant sources often creates a more complete amino acid profile.

Creatine: Facts vs. Fiction

Creatine monohydrate has exceptional research backing its effectiveness. This naturally occurring compound increases phosphocreatine stores in muscles by approximately 15-20% after supplementation. The traditional protocol involves a loading phase (20g/day for 5-7 days) followed by maintenance (3-5g/day). However, taking 3-5g daily increases muscle creatine levels over time.

Despite widespread use, misconceptions about creatine persist. It doesn’t directly build muscle but provides energy for more productive training. Contrary to some claims, research shows creatine doesn’t damage kidneys in healthy individuals, and water retention typically occurs only during initial supplementation phases. Creatine benefits extend beyond athletics—research suggests potential neuroprotective effects and benefits for cognitive function.

Hydration Drinks: When Water Isn’t Enough

Hydration drinks provide fluid, electrolytes, and sometimes carbohydrates to maintain hydration during and after exercise. Research shows that replacing fluid with plain water after exercise can lead to significant drops in serum osmolality (salt concentration in blood) and increased urine production, compromising fluid balance. Including sodium in rehydration beverages improves fluid retention and restores electrolyte balance.

Plain water typically suffices for shorter workouts (under an hour). For lengthier or more intense sessions, especially in hot environments, drinks containing electrolytes and possibly carbohydrates can support performance and recovery. Studies indicate that consuming beverages with 500-700mg/L of sodium helps maintain fluid balance after heavy sweating.

Commercial sports drinks often contain unnecessary additives and sugar. A practical alternative is to make your own using water, a pinch of salt, and natural flavourings. For more prolonged activities, adding small amounts of carbohydrates (30-60g per hour) can help maintain energy levels while supporting hydration.

The effectiveness of these supplements depends greatly on individual factors, including diet quality, training intensity, goals, and genetics. The benefits may be minimal for those with high-quality diets and those who train moderately. However, thoughtfully selected supplements can provide meaningful support for individuals with dietary restrictions, high training demands, or specific performance goals.

Common Myths About Nutrition for Health and Performance

The world of nutrition buzzes with popular beliefs that often have little scientific backing. Separating fact from fiction becomes vital for anyone seeking to optimise their nutrition for health and performance. Misconceptions about carbohydrates, protein intake, meal timing, and late-night eating persist despite substantial evidence to the contrary.

These myths can lead to unnecessary dietary restrictions or harmful practices undermining well-being and athletic progress. Scientific research clarifies these topics, revealing how our bodies process and utilise nutrients.

Below, we’ll address widespread nutrition myths and examine what research says about their validity. This evidence-based approach helps establish a foundation for making informed dietary choices that support health goals.

Are Carbs Really Bad for You? The Truth Behind the Headlines

Myth Statement

Carbohydrates are the primary culprits behind weight gain, metabolic problems, and poor health outcomes.

Reality Check

Contrary to popular belief, carbohydrates are vital fuel for the body and brain. Nutrition for health and performance depends significantly on adequate carbohydrate intake, particularly for active individuals. Research demonstrates that carbohydrates are the predominant fuel source during exercise, increasing usage as activity intensity rises.

Evidence Breakdown

Carbohydrates provide essential energy for the brain and central nervous system. You cannot fully enjoy vigorous workouts or competitions without sufficient carbohydrates because your body lacks the necessary fuel. Your muscles and liver store carbohydrates as glycogen, which becomes crucial during high-intensity activities.

The recommended daily carbohydrate intake ranges from 45% to 65% of total calories, allowing for various nutritional approaches whilst avoiding deficiencies. For active individuals, keeping carbohydrate intake near the upper end provides sufficient fuel for working muscles.

Quality matters more than quantity. Focusing on fruits, vegetables, and whole-grain products maximises the health benefits of carbohydrates. These foods provide vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and fibre that help prevent cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and other chronic conditions.

A comprehensive Cochrane review found no significant advantage to low-carbohydrate diets compared to balanced diets for long-term health outcomes. The review concluded there was “probably little to no difference between lower and higher carbohydrate diets for changes in heart disease risks” over up to two years.

Practical Application

Rather than eliminating carbohydrates, focus on choosing high-quality sources:

• Prioritise whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes
• Limit added sugars and refined carbohydrates
• Adjust intake based on your activity level—more active people typically require more carbohydrates
• Time carbohydrate intake around exercise for optimal performance and recovery

Do High-Protein Diets Damage Your Kidneys?

Myth Statement

High protein intake inevitably leads to kidney damage and should be avoided for long-term health.

Reality Check

Scientific evidence does not support the notion that high protein intake harms kidney function in healthy individuals. Whilst nutrition for health and performance often includes elevated protein intake, research shows this approach is safe for those with normal kidney function.

Evidence Breakdown

Multiple studies demonstrate that healthy kidneys adapt well to higher protein loads. A long-term observational study found no association between increased protein intake and decreased kidney function in people with healthy kidneys.

The Dietary Reference Intake for protein is 0.8g per kg of body mass daily. However, this level may not be sufficient for active individuals. Endurance athletes typically require 1.2-1.4g/kg daily, whilst strength and power athletes may need 1.6-1.7g/kg.

Protein restriction is typically recommended for those with existing kidney disease. Research confirms that high-protein diets can exacerbate kidney dysfunction in patients with chronic kidney disease. This explains the origin of the misconception that all high-protein diets harm kidneys.

Several studies have examined creatine supplementation, which is often combined with high-protein diets. Research shows that even with long-term use (up to 5 years), creatine does not adversely affect kidney function in healthy athletes.

Practical Application

When considering protein intake:

• If you have healthy kidneys, moderate to high protein intake (up to 2g/kg body weight) appears safe
• Distribute protein intake throughout the day for optimal muscle synthesis
• Those with kidney disease or risk factors should consult healthcare providers before increasing protein intake
• Ensure adequate hydration when consuming higher protein amounts
• Balance protein sources between animal and plant-based options for dietary variety

Should You Eat Six Small Meals a Day for Better Metabolism?

Myth Statement

Eating six small meals daily significantly boosts metabolism and improves weight management compared to fewer, larger meals.

Reality Check

Despite its popularity, research does not consistently support the claim that frequent meals enhance metabolic rate. Nutrition for health and performance strategies should consider individual preferences and lifestyle factors rather than arbitrary meal frequency rules.

Evidence Breakdown

Multiple systematic reviews comparing intermittent fasting with continuous eating patterns show comparable or sometimes superior effects on weight loss and metabolic health with reduced meal frequency. This contradicts the notion that frequent meals are necessary for optimal metabolism.

Time-restricted eating, which typically involves limiting food consumption to a window of 8-12 hours per day, has demonstrated significant benefits for weight management and metabolic health. These approaches directly challenge the six-meals-per-day theory.

Japanese studies indicate that meal timing and frequency should adapt to individual needs rather than following strict rules. What appears more important is maintaining regular mealtimes and establishing healthy eating patterns.

Research on meal distribution shows study participants consumed an average of 4.4 eating occasions daily within an 11.5-hour window. This suggests optimal meal frequency may be lower than often recommended.

Practical Application

When determining your meal frequency:

• Listen to your body’s hunger and fullness cues rather than following arbitrary timing rules
• Consider your schedule, preferences, and activity patterns
• Focus on overall diet quality rather than meal timing
• If you prefer fewer, larger meals or more frequent, smaller meals, both can work if total nutrition needs are met
• Experiment to find what works best for your energy levels, performance, and satisfaction

Does Eating Late at Night Affect Nutrition for Health and Performance?

Myth Statement

Eating after a particular evening hour automatically leads to weight gain and metabolic disruption regardless of overall diet quality.

Reality Check

The relationship between meal timing and health outcomes is nuanced. While some research suggests benefits to aligning eating with circadian rhythms (body clock), nutrition for health and performance depends more on overall dietary patterns than specific cut-off times for evening meals.

Evidence Breakdown

Studies on time-restricted eating demonstrate that limiting food intake to consistent daily windows (often excluding late evening) benefits weight management and metabolic health. This suggests meal timing may influence health outcomes.

Research has found associations between nighttime eating and weight gain. One study showed that after controlling for various factors, nighttime eaters gained significantly more weight (6.2 kg) than non-night-time eaters (1.7 kg).

Nighttime eaters consumed approximately 15% of their daily caloric intake between 11 PM and 5 AM, with carbohydrates constituting the bulk of these calories (61.5%). This pattern may affect overall energy balance.

Late-night eating appears to affect sleep quality. Analysis of nationally representative data revealed that individuals who reported eating less than one hour before bedtime experienced greater wakefulness after sleep onset, indicating poorer sleep quality.

Hormonal responses to food timing matter. Studies show that compared to control subjects, the caloric intake rhythms of night eaters were delayed by about 1.5 hours, accompanied by similar delays in insulin, leptin, and other key hormones.

Practical Application

For optimal evening nutrition:

• Consider finishing your last substantial meal 2-3 hours before bedtime when possible
• If eating late is necessary, choose lighter meals with modest portions
• Focus on balanced nutrition rather than high-carbohydrate or high-fat late-night options
• Pay attention to how evening eating affects your sleep quality and adjust accordingly
• Remember that overall daily nutrition quality and quantity typically matter more than strict timing rules

How to Improve Nutrition for Health and Performance in Everyday Life

Applying adequate nutrition for health and performance principles to daily life requires practical strategies that fit your routines. Moving from theoretical knowledge to everyday practice often represents many’s most significant challenge when trying to eat better.

A balanced food choice approach supports immediate energy needs and long-term health goals. Rather than focusing on rigid rules or perfect meal plans, sustainable improvements come from consistent, small changes that gradually become habits.

The connection between what we eat and how we feel works through several bodily pathways. Food provides calories and information influencing metabolic processes, hormonal responses, and genetic expression.

The subsections below highlight these. We’ll explore practical ways to build balanced meals, adapt your diet to specific health and fitness goals, and implement simple changes that make healthier eating accessible without strict dieting rules.

How to Build Balanced Meals for Better Health and Energy

Creating balanced meals provides the foundation for everyday nutrition for health and performance. Evidence suggests that a well-structured approach to meal composition offers consistent energy, enhanced recovery, and better overall health outcomes.

A balanced meal includes several essential components, each serving a specific physiological purpose; see the table below. Protein supplies amino acids needed for tissue repair and enzyme production. Carbohydrates deliver readily accessible energy, particularly for the brain and during intense activity. Healthy fats support hormone production and cell membrane integrity.

Research indicates that optimal meal composition should include a variety of food groups. The Dietary Guidelines recommend consuming various vegetables, fruits, whole grains, low-fat dairy, and diverse protein sources, including seafood, lean meats, eggs, legumes, nuts, and seeds.

The macronutrient balance of meals affects both performance and recovery. Studies show that carbohydrates are the body’s preferred energy source, particularly for high-intensity activities. At the same time, proteins are essential for muscle repair and growth.

Minerals and micronutrients play crucial roles in balanced meals. The calcium-to-magnesium ratio affects vitamin D metabolism, bone health, and cardiovascular function. An ideal ratio of approximately 2:1 (Ca:Mg) optimises these synergistic effects.

The timing of meals also affects energy availability and nutrient utilisation. Distributing protein intake across several meals (20-40g per meal) maximises muscle protein synthesis throughout the day. This approach provides consistent energy and supports the recovery needs of active individuals.

Japanese dietary traditions offer a helpful template for practical meal planning. Three meals daily consist of a staple (rice), a main dish (protein), side dishes (vegetables), milk, and fruit, which creates balanced nutrition that prevents health issues.

Eating for Different Goals – Fat Loss, Muscle Gain, and Overall Wellness With Nutrition for Health and Performance

Tailoring your nutrition for health and performance approach to specific goals requires adjusting macronutrient ratios, meal timing, and overall caloric intake. Different physiological objectives demand distinct nutritional strategies while maintaining fundamental nutrition principles.

Creating a caloric deficit while preserving lean mass is key to fat loss. Research suggests that a weight loss rate of 0.5-1 kg of body mass weekly is appropriate, with the resulting energy deficit based on total daily energy needs. Protein should be prioritised during weight loss to preserve lean body mass, with a recommended intake of 1.6-2.2 g/kg/d (see table below for breakdown).

Time-restricted eating shows promise for fat loss without strict calorie counting. Studies demonstrate that limiting food intake to 6-8 hours daily, either alone or combined with caloric restriction, effectively reduces body fat and overall body mass. This provides a practical approach focusing on when rather than just what to eat.

For muscle gain, adequate energy surplus combined with sufficient protein is essential. Protein intake should range from 1.6-2.2 g/kg/day to support muscle protein synthesis. Carbohydrate intake should be higher (5-8 g/kg/day) to support training intensity and provide sufficient energy.

Nutritional needs vary based on age, sex, and training status. For women, research shows that creatine supplementation during the luteal phase reduces fatigue after sprint tests. Vegetarians and vegans may benefit from targeted supplementation due to lower baseline levels of certain nutrients like creatine and vitamin B12.

Balanced nutrition supporting metabolic health, immune function, and recovery is paramount for overall wellness. Research indicates the Mediterranean Diet shows superior results for cardiovascular risk reduction and weight management. This approach emphasises diverse plant foods, lean proteins, and healthy fats rather than strict restrictions.

Simple Ways to Eat Healthier Without Following a Strict Diet

Making nutrition improvements needn’t involve complex rules or restrictive eating patterns. Small, sustainable changes to daily habits often prove more effective than short-term diets for long-term nutrition for health and performance.

Focus on food quality rather than quantity as a first step toward better nutrition. When selecting carbohydrates, choose whole, unprocessed sources like fruits, vegetables, and whole grains rather than refined options. This simple switch improves nutrient density without requiring strict calorie counting.

Small food swaps can significantly reduce calorie and saturated fat intake without feeling restricted. For example, choosing low-fat cheddar instead of regular saves nearly 5g of saturated fat per ounce, while switching from fried to baked fish reduces fat by almost half. These changes maintain eating enjoyment while improving nutritional profile.

Time-restricted eating offers a flexible approach to healthier eating without strict food rules. Research shows that limiting food consumption to 4-12 hours when the body is most receptive to food may improve metabolic health. This approach requires no special foods or calorie counting.

Building on short-term goals helps establish sustainable, healthy behaviours. A SMARTS goal approach—making objectives Specific, Measurable, Action-oriented, Realistic, Timely, and Self-determined—proves effective for nutrition improvements. For example, “I will pack my lunch with vegetables, lean protein, and fruit daily this week” creates an achievable starting point.

Stress significantly influences eating behaviours, potentially leading to unhealthy patterns. Focus on planning balanced meals containing fish, fresh vegetables, dairy products, and vegetable oils—food groups often neglected during stressful periods. This proactive approach helps maintain nutrition quality despite life pressures.

Incorporating fortified foods offers simple nutrition enhancement without significant dietary changes. Studies show that foods enriched with nutrients like protein, vitamin D, and various minerals can improve health markers without requiring strict dieting. This approach makes nutrition improvements accessible to everyone.

Sources

• Adafer R, Messaadi W, Meddahi M, Patey A, Haderbache A, Bayen S, et al. Food timing, circadian rhythm and chrononutrition: a systematic review of time‐restricted eating’s effects on human health. Nutrients. 2020;12(12):3770.
• Ahola A. J., Mikkilä V., Saraheimo M., et al. Sense of coherence, food selection and leisure time physical activity in type 1 diabetes. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health. 2012;40(7):621–628.
• Alghannam A., Gonzalez J., Betts J. Restoration of Muscle Glycogen and Functional Capacity: Role of Post-Exercise Carbohydrate and Protein Co-Ingestion. Nutrients. 2018;10:253.
• Alghannam AF. Carbohydrate–protein ingestion improves subsequent running capacity towards the end of a football-specific intermittent exercise. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2011. Oct;36(5):748–757.
• American College of Sports Medicine; American Dietetic Association; Dietitians of Canada. Joint Position Statement: nutrition and athletic performance. American College of Sports Medicine, American Dietetic Association, and Dietitians of Canada. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000 Dec;32(12):2130-45.
• American College of Sports Medicine. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 10th ed. Philadelphia (PA): Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; in press.
• American Dietetic Association; Dietitians of Canada; American College of Sports Medicine; Rodriguez NR, Di Marco NM, Langley S. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Nutrition and athletic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009 Mar;41(3):709-31.
• Atherton PJ, Smith K. Muscle protein synthesis in response to nutrition and exercise. J Physiol. 2012;590(5):1049–1057.
• Berger M.M., Shenkin A., Schweinlin A., Amrein K., Augsburger M., Biesalski H.K., Bischoff S.C., Casaer M.P., Gundogan K., Lepp H.L., et al. ESPEN micronutrient guideline. Clin. Nutr. 2022;41:1357–1424.
• Biolo G, Tipton KD, Klein S, Wolfe RR. An abundant supply of amino acids enhances the metabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein. American Journal of Physiology. 1997;273(1 Pt 1):E122–E129.
• Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Dawson-Hughes B, Staehelin HB, Orav JE, Stuck AE, Theiler R, Wong JB, Egli A, Kiel DP, Henschkowski J. Fall prevention with supplemental and active forms of vitamin D: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ. 2009;339:b3692.
• Burke LM, Hawley JA, Wong SH, et al. Carbohydrates for training and competition. Food, Nutr Sports Perform III. 2013;29:17–27.
• Calder P. n-3 PUFA and inflammation: from membrane to nucleus and from bench to bedside. Proc Nutr Soc. (2020).
• Campos FA, Bertuzzi R, Dourado AC, et al. Energy demands in taekwondo athletes during combat simulation. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012;112(4):1221–1228.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Statistics Report: Estimates of Diabetes and Its Burden in the United States. Atlanta (Georgia): CDC; 2014.
• Cheuvront SN, Rw K. Dehydration: Physiology, assessment, and performance effects. Compr Physiol. 2014;4:257–285.
• Christensen EH, Hansen O. Respiratorischen quotient und O2-aufnahme. Skandinavisches Archive fur Physiologie. 1939;81:180–9.
• Cienfuegos S., Gabel K., Kalam F., Ezpeleta M., Wiseman E., Pavlou V., Lin S., Oliveira M.L., Varady K.A. Effects of 4- and 6-h Time-Restricted Feeding on Weight and Cardiometabolic Health: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Adults with Obesity. Cell Metab. 2020;32:366–378.e3.
• Cirillo M, Lombardi C, Chiricone D, De Santo NG, Zanchetti A, Bilancio G. Protein Intake and Kidney Function in the Middle-Age Population: Contrast between Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Data. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation. 2014;29:1733–1740.
• Close DC, Hagerman AE. Chemistry of reactive oxygen species and antioxidants. In: Alessio HM, Hagerman AE, editors. Oxidative Stress, Exercise and Aging. London: Imperial College Press; 2006. p. 1–8.
• Costantini L., Molinari R., Farinon B., Merendino N. Impact of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on the Gut Microbiota. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017;18:2645. doi: 10.3390/ijms18122645.
• Costill, D.L., Sparks, K.E. Rapid fluid replacement following thermal dehydration. J. Appl. Physiol., 34 (1973), pp. 299-303.
• Cotter J.D., Thornton S.N., Lee J.K.W., Laursen P.B. Are we being drowned in hydration advice? Thirsty for more? Physiol. Med. 2014;3:18.
• Da Poian AT, El-Bacha T, Luz MRMP. Nutrient Utilisation in Humans: Metabolism Pathways. Nature Education 2010;3(9):11.
• Foo WL, Harrison JD, Mhizha FT, et al. A short-term low-fiber diet reduces body mass in healthy young men: implications for weight-sensitive sports. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2022;32(4):256–264.
• Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2005.
• Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2005.
• Fouhy L.E., Mangano K.M., Zhang X., Hughes B.D., Tucker K.L., Noel S.E. Association between a Calcium-to-Magnesium Ratio and Osteoporosis among Puerto Rican Adults. J. Nutr. 2023;153:2642–2650.
• Garthe I, Raastad T, Refsnes PE, et al. Effect of two different weight-loss rates on body composition and strength and power-related performance in elite athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2011;21(2):97–104.
• Gastin PB. Energy system interaction and relative contribution during maximal exercise. Sports Med. 2001;31:725–741.
• Gluck ME, Venti CA, Salbe AD, Krakoff J. Nighttime eating: commonly observed and related to weight gain in an inpatient food intake study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2008 Oct;88(4):900-5.
• Goel N, Stunkard AJ, Rogers NL et al. Circadian rhythm profiles in women with night eating syndrome. Journal of Biological Rhythms. 2009;24:85–94.
• Gordon A.N., Moore S.R., Patterson N.D., Hostetter M.E., Cabre H.E., Hirsch K.R., Hackney A.C., Smith-Ryan A.E. The Effects of Creatine Monohydrate Loading on Exercise Recovery in Active Women throughout the Menstrual Cycle. Nutrients. 2023;15:3567.
• Gropper SS, Smith JL, Groff JL. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. 5th edition. Belmont (California): Thompson Brooks/Cole; 2009.
• Gu L, Fu R, Hong J, Ni H, Yu K, Lou H. Effects of intermittent fasting in human compared to a non‐intervention diet and caloric restriction: a meta‐analysis of randomised controlled trials. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2022;9:871682.
• Guest NS, VanDusseldorp TA, Nelson MT, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: caffeine and exercise performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021;18(1):1.
• Guyton, A.C., Hall, J.E. Textbook of Medical Physiology. WB Sounders Company, Philadelphia, USA (2006).
• Hargreaves M, Spriet L.L. Skeletal muscle energy metabolism during exercise. Nature Metabolism. 2020;2:817–828.
• Harris JJ, Jolivet R, Attwell D. Synaptic energy use and supply. Neuron 2012;75(5):762-77.
• Harris RC, Tallon M, Dunnett M, et al. The absorption of orally supplied β-alanine and its effect on muscle carnosine synthesis in human vastus lateralis. Amino Acids. 2006;30(3):279–289.
• Harris RC, Söderlund K, Hultman E. Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation. Clin Sci. 1992;83(3):367–374.
• Herbst E, Paglialunga S, Gerling C, Whitfield J, Mukai K, Chabowski A, et al. Omega-3 supplementation alters mitochondrial membrane composition and respiration kinetics in human skeletal muscle. J Physiol. (2014) 592:1341–52.
• Heileson JL, Harris DR, Tomek S, et al. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and exercise-induced muscle damage: EPA or DHA? Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2024;56(3):476–485.
• Hostetter TH, Meyer TW, Rennke HG, Brenner BM. Chronic Effects of Dietary Protein in the Rat with Intact and Reduced Renal Mass. Kidney International. 1986;30:509–517.
• Hulton AT, Malone JJ, Clarke ND, et al. Energy requirements and nutritional strategies for male soccer players: a review and suggestions for practice. Nutrients. 2022;14(3):657.
• Iao S, Jansen E, Shedden K, Dunietz GL, Chervin RD, O’Brien LM. Associations between bedtime eating or drinking, sleep duration and wake after sleep onset: Findings from the American time use survey. British Journal of Nutrition. 2021;127:1-10.
• Iio Y, Tanaka M, Kozai H, et al. Association between the experience of exertional heat illness (EHI) and living conditions of collegiate student athletes. Drug Discov Ther. 2024. Mar 20;18(1):60–66.
• Jäger R, Mohr AE, Carpenter KC, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: probiotics. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019;16(1):62.
• Jäger R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14(1):20.
• Jones JM, Anderson JW. Grain foods and health: a primer for clinicians. Physician and Sportsmedicine. 2008;36(1):18-33.
• Kant AK. Eating patterns of US adults: Meals, snacks, and time of eating. Physiology & Behavior. 2018;193:270-278.
• Kant AK, Graubard BI. 40-year trends in meal and snack eating behaviors of American adults. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2015;115:50-63.
• Kerksick CM, Wilborn CD, Roberts MD, et al. ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018. Aug 1;15(1):38.
• Kerksick CM, Arent S, Schoenfeld BJ, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutrient timing. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14(1):33.
• Kim J. Effects of combined creatine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation on soccer-specific performance in elite soccer players: a randomised controlled trial. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021. Jun 28;18(13):6919.
• Knight EL, Stampfer MJ, Hankinson SE, Spiegelman D, Curhan GC. The Impact of Protein Intake on Renal Function Decline in Women with Normal Renal Function or Mild Renal Insufficiency. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2003;138:460–467.
• Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14(1):18.
• Lambert EV, Goedecke JH, van Zyl C, et al. High-fat diet versus habitual diet prior to carbohydrate loading: Effects on exercise metabolism and cycling performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2001;11:209–25.
• Landi F., Calvani R., Tosato M., Martone A.M., Ortolani E., Savera G., Sisto A., Marzetti E. Anorexia of aging: Risk factors, consequences, and potential treatments. Nutrients. 2016;8:69.
• Lanhers C., Pereira B., Naughton G., Trousselard M., Lesage F.X., Dutheil F. Creatine Supplementation and Lower Limb Strength Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses. Sports Med. 2015;45:1285–1294.
• Liska D., Mah E., Brisbois T., Barrios P.L., Baker L.B., Spriet L.L. Narrative review of hydration and selected health outcomes in the general population. Nutrients. 2019;11:70.
• Little TJ, Horowitz M, Feinle-Bisset C. Modulation by high-fat diets of gastrointestinal function and hormones associated with the regulation of energy intake: Implications for the pathophysiology of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86(3):531–541.
• Lu Y, Sanae Matsuyama S, Sugawara Y, Sone T, Tsuji I. Changes in a specific dietary pattern and incident dementia: a prospective cohort study. Clinical Nutrition. 2021;40:3495–3502.
• Lykstad J, Sharma S. Biochemistry, Water Soluble Vitamins. 2023 Mar 6. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan
• Marinac CR, Sears DD, Natarajan L, Gallo LC, Breen CI, Patterson RE. Frequency and circadian timing of eating may influence biomarkers of inflammation and insulin resistance associated with breast cancer risk. PLoS One. 2015;10(8):e0136240.
• Maughan, R.J., Owen, J.H., Shirreffs, S.M., Leiper, J.B. Post-exercise rehydration in man: effects of electrolyte addition to ingested fluids. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol., 69 (1994), pp. 209-215.
• McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL. Sports and Exercise Nutrition. Baltimore (MD): Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005.
• McCullough ML, Feskanich D, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, Ascherio A, Variyam JN, Spiegelman D, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Adherence to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans and risk of major chronic disease in men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2000;72:1223–31.
• McGlory C., Devries M., Phillips S. Skeletal Muscle and Resistance Exercise Training: The Role of Protein Synthesis in Recovery and Remodeling. J. Appl. Physiol. 2017;122:541–548.
• Minino A, Smith L. Deaths: preliminary data for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports. 2001;49(12):1-40.
• Moore DR, Robinson MJ, Fry JL, Tang JE, Glover EI, Wilkinson SB, et al. Ingested protein dose response of muscle and albumin protein synthesis after resistance exercise in young men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89:161–168.
• Moro T., Brightwell C.R., Velarde B., Fry C.S., Nakayama K., Sanbongi C., Volpi E., Rasmussen B.B. Whey Protein Hydrolysate Increases Amino Acid Uptake, mTORC1 Signaling, and Protein Synthesis in Skeletal Muscle of Healthy Young Men in a Randomized Crossover Trial. J. Nutr. 2019;149:1149–1158.
• Morton R.W., Murphy K.T., McKellar S.R., Schoenfeld B.J., Henselmans M., Helms E., Aragon A.A., Devries M.C., Banfield L., Krieger J.W., et al. A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression of the Effect of Protein Supplementation on Resistance Training-Induced Gains in Muscle Mass and Strength in Healthy Adults. Br. J. Sports Med. 2018;52:376–384.
• Nasimi N, Sohrabi Z, Dabbaghmanesh MH, et al. A novel fortified dairy product and sarcopenia measures in sarcopenic older adults: a double-blind randomised controlled trial. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2021;22(4):809–815.
• Naude CE, Brand A, Schoonees A, Nguyen KA, Chaplin M, Volmink J. Low‐carbohydrate versus balanced‐carbohydrate diets for reducing weight and cardiovascular risk. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2022;2022(1).
• Patterson RE, Laughlin GA, LaCroix AZ, Hartman SJ, Natarajan L, Senger CM, et al. Intermittent fasting and human metabolic health. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2015;115(8):1203–1212.
• Petersen M.C., Gallop M.R., Flores Ramos S., Zarrinpar A., Broussard J.L., Chondronikola M., Chaix A., Klein S. Complex Physiology and Clinical Implications of Time-Restricted Eating. Physiol. Rev. 2022;102:1991–2034.
• Phillips SM, Van Loon LJ. Dietary protein for athletes: from requirements to optimum adaptation. J Sports Sci. 2011;29Suppl 1):S29–38.
• Poortmans JR, Francaux M. Long-term oral creatine supplementation does not impair renal function in healthy athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1999;31:1108–1110.
• Reynolds AN, Akerman A, Kumar S, Diep Pham HT, Coffey S, Mann J. Dietary fibre in hypertension and cardiovascular disease management: systematic review and meta‐analyses. BMC Medicine. 2022;20(1):139.
• Reynolds AN, Akerman AP, Mann J. Dietary fibre and whole grains in diabetes management: systematic review and meta‐analyses. PLoS Med. 2020;17(3):e1003053.
• Sawka MN, Burke LM, Eichner ER, Maughan RJ, Montain SJ, Stachenfield NS. American College of Sports Medicine position stand: exercise and fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(2):377-390.
• Schulze MB, Martínez-González MA, Fung TT, Lichtenstein AH, Forouhi NG. Food-based dietary patterns and chronic disease prevention. BMJ. 2018;361:k2396.
• Shai I., Schwarzfuchs D., Henkin Y., Shahar D.R., Witkow S., Greenberg I., Golan R., Fraser D., Bolotin A., Vardi H., et al. Weight loss with a low-carbohydrate, Mediterranean, or low-fat diet. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008;359:229–241.
• Stevens GA, Bennett JE, Hennocq Q, Lu Y, De-Regil LM, Rogers L, et al. Trends and mortality effects of vitamin A deficiency in children in 138 low-income and middle-income countries between 1991 and 2013: a pooled analysis of population-based surveys. Lancet Global Health. (2015) 3:e528–36.
• The Diabetes Nutrition Study Group of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (DNSG). Evidence‐based European recommendations for the dietary management of diabetes. Diabetologia. 2023;66(6):965‐
• Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: nutrition and athletic performance. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2016;116(3):501–528.
• Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. American College of Sports Medicine Joint Position Statement. Nutrition and Athletic Performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2016;48:543–568.
• S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture Web site. Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee.
• S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005. Washington (DC): U.S. Government Printing Office; 2005. p. 1–85.
• Volek JS, Freidenreich DJ, Saenz C, Kunces LJ, Creighton BC, Bartley JM, Davitt PM, Munoz CX, Anderson JM, Maresh CM, Lee EC, Schuenke MD, Aerni G, Kraemer WJ, Phinney SD. Metabolic characteristics of keto-adapted ultra-endurance runners. Metabolism. 2016 Mar;65(3):100-10.
• Weyh C., Krüger K., Peeling P., Castell L. The Role of Minerals in the Optimal Functioning of the Immune System. Nutrients. 2022;14:644.
• Wirth J., Hillesheim E., Brennan L. The Role of Protein Intake and Its Timing on Body Composition and Muscle Function in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J. Nutr. 2020;150:1443–1460.
• Wishart K. Increased micronutrient requirements during physiologically demanding situations: Review of the current evidence. Vitamin Miner 2017;6(3):1-16.
• World Health Organization. Carbohydrate intake for adults and children: WHO guideline. In Carbohydrate intake for adults and children: WHO guideline, 2023.
• Wu A, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F. Dietary omega-3 fatty acids normalise BDNF levels, reduce oxidative damage, and counteract learning disability after traumatic brain injury in rats. Journal of Neurotrauma. 2004;21:1457–1467.
• Zembron-Lacny A, Morawin B, Wawrzyniak-Gramacka E, Gramacki J, Jarmuzek P, Kotlega D, Ziemann E. Multiple Cryotherapy Attenuates Oxi-Inflammatory Response Following Skeletal Muscle Injury. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020 October 27;17(21):7855.